Thursday, September 29, 2011

Cedant Togae Arma




Preface

“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.”
George Santayana

A great and mighty people shutter.  Controversial wars, illusive prosperity, elusive victory, unprecedented extra-constitutional powers, the politics of fear, personal destruction and jingoism mark the times.  The ambition of one man casts a shadow upon the entire known world.  Riots between partisans fill the streets when once elections decided.  The hearts of patriots stir. The clarion call to arms signals the domestic menace – revolution and civil war. Winston Churchill wrote “Study history, study history. In history lies all the secrets of statecraft.”  Whether or not history can solve the riddles of our times is a matter of conjecture.

James A. Bretney
Venice, California

_________________________________________________________________

Two thousand years ago, the struggle of tyranny and liberty took shape in the Caesarian Civil Wars.  The messianic narrative told by schoolmarms and the silver screen depicts the triumph of individualism and innovation against corruption and conservatism.   The mystery of life often contradicts conventional wisdom.  Mark Twain warned, “The very ink with which history is written is merely fluid prejudice.”  What is true is that “A small body of determined spirits fired by an unquenchable faith in their mission can alter the course of history.[i]”  Two thousand years ago, those great spirits were Caesar and Cicero.  The very invocation of their names conjures the immortality of their virtue and great deeds.   This friendship of these two men, like the friendship between the lion and the lion-tamer, determined the course of western civilization forever.


“Cedant Togae Arma” translated roughly in English means “Let war and violence give way to the law.  Cicero used the expression as a personal motto inscribing it as his opening to his book De Officiis[ii].  Cicero wrote the book about duty and public life in a type of self imposed exile following Caesar’s unbroken slaughter of his fellow countrymen.  Cicero completed the book one year before his own death and five months after Caesar’s death in assassination on March 15, 44 BC.

"Veni, Vidi, Vici" translated roughly in English means “I came I saw I conquered.  Caesar used the expression to summarize his victory over Pharnaces II of Pontus, the son of Rome’s nemesis Mithridates[iii].  It served as his personal motto.  In prosecuting his wars in Gaul, Caesar liberated one million Gauls by killing another million and enslaving another million.  No doubt the wealth, industry and plunder of Gaul served to oil the political machine he made for himself in the years of the first triumvirate.  The eradication forever of a second coming of Brennus and the territorial acquisition of Northern Europe came at a price for the three hundred twenty thousand souls enrolled in the Roman census roll.  By the time of Caesar’s final triumph, the census rolls counted only one hundred fifty thousand.[iv]  Fifty four percent of the population of Rome, excluding the Italians, provincial and foreign casualties, would die for a man who dared to call himself a god.

A historical tally of the Romans who received Caesar’s "Veni, Vidi, Vici" epitaph can be found here: 



Battle Name
Campaign
Result
Date
Caesar
Republic
Battle of Utica
Africa
Caesar
15-Aug-49

1,000
Battle of Bagradas River
Africa
Republic
24-Aug-49
15,000
1,000
Battle of Ilerda
Spain
Caesar
2-Sep-49
2,000

Siege of Massilia
Spain
Caesar
6-Sep-49
4,000
1,100
Battle of Dyrrhachium
Greece
Republic
10-Jul-48
2,000
1,000
Pharsalia
Greece
Caesar
9-Aug-48
1,200
6,000
Battle of Nicopolis
Pontic
Republic
1-Dec-48
10,000

Battle of Zela
Pontic
Caesar
2-Aug-47
1,000

Battle of Ruspina
Africa
Caesar
4-Jan-46
2,000
6,000
Battle of Thapsus
Africa
Caesar
6-Apr-46
1,000
30,000
Battle of Munda
Spain
Caesar
17-Mar-45
1,000
30,000




39,200
76,100








Total Estimated casualties
115,300













Caesar himself provided the figures of the war dead. Caesar did more harm to his own people than he ever did to the Gauls.  He killed a third of the Gauls and enslaved another third.  He killed 54% of the Romans.  The portion he sent to the netherworld came from the best families.  The remaining 46% he enslaved.

Whether or not the late Republican period could have continued in the absence of Caesar or of a Caesar serving the Republican Constitution is a matter of conjecture.  The fact is that it did not survive.  The Republic for five centuries expanded exponentially.  The military monarchy of Empire lasted a little more than half that time and collapsed gradually over centuries and suddenly in less than 2 decades.  That collapse had consequences.  One material consequence was that members of Western civilization would not enjoy a similar standard of living and quality of life until Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India nineteen centuries after Caesar’s boast “Alea iacta est.”


Caesar like Cicero won fame for his rhetorical skill.  Caesar like Cicero wrote books most notably his Commentaries.  Caesar like Cicero gained fame by pleading cases at the bar. Cicero gained fame for defending Sextius Roscius.  Caesar gained fame for impeaching the governor of Macedonia, Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella.  Cicero gained fame for prosecuting his lieutenant, the governor of Africa, Gaius Verres.  Cicero and Caesar were contemporaries of one another.  Cicero was five years older.  They faced each other in the Gaius Rabirius case. Caesar gained the victory.  They faced each other in Senate on the issue of the Caitline Conspiracy.  Cicero gained the victory.  They both supported the Gabinian law giving Pompey absolute power in prosecuting the war against piracy.

They knew each other and respected each other’s ability.  Cicero praised Caesar’s rhetoric and forensic skills.  At its inception, Caesar offered Cicero membership into the first triumvirate.  Caesar and Cicero knew each other most intimately by their mutual friendship to a third man – Gnaeus Pompieus Magnus.  Prior to ascension of the divine Caesar, Pompey was the greatest Roman general since Scipio Africanus.  One man would keep faith with his friend to the bitter end and another would betray that friendship for political gain.

Cicero maintained friendships a legion of correspondents whom he counted among his friends.   Historians record eight hundred known letters authored by Cicero and one hundred letters written to Cicero.  Cicero wrote letters to his son, Marcus Tullius Cicero the younger, to his daughter, Tullia Cicerones, to his slave, Marcus Tullius Tiro, to his friend, Titus Pomponius Atticus and to his wife, Terentia Varrones.

Cicero had many correspondents whose contributions to history maybe obscured and some who had no relationship to Caesar.  They include Quintus Ancharius, Lucius Culleolus, Marcus Curius, Marcus Fadius Gallus, Titus Fadius, Publius Furius Crassipes, Marcus Marius, Quintus Metellus Celer, Quintus Metellus Nepos, Quintus Minucius Thermus, Gaius Munatius, Quintus Philippus, Publius Silius Nerva, Lucius Valerius and Publius Volumnius Eutrapelus.

Cicero wrote letters to Gaius Trebatius Testa, a man who won Caesar’s favor.  Cicero wrote letters to Gaius Memmius, a man Caesar disserted for political expediency.  Cicero wrote letters to Lucius Aemilius Paullus, a man Caesar bribed during his Consulship. Cicero wrote letters to Publius Sestius, a man who Caesar prosecuted unsuccessfully.  Cicero wrote letters to Caius Claudius Marcellus Augur, a man Caesar tried to separate from his wife. Cicero wrote letters to Marcus Licinius Crassus, a man who died unceremoniously for attempting to emulate Caesar.

Cicero wrote letters to Publius Sittius, a man who made war against his countrymen at Caesar’s request. Cicero wrote letters to Quintus Valerius Orca, a man who made war against his countrymen at the request of Caesar. Cicero wrote letters to Lucius Lucceius, a man who made war against his countrymen to oppose Caesar. Cicero wrote letters to Titus Titius, a man who made war against his countrymen against Caesar. 

Cicero wrote letters to Caius Claudius Marcellus, a man who opposed Caesar to the point of freeing and arming gladiators for this aim.  Cicero wrote letters to Gaius Antonius, a man who made war against his countrymen and died in the cause of Caesar. Cicero wrote letters to Appius Claudius Pulcher, a man who died in opposition to Caesar. 

Cicero wrote letters to Marcus Caelius Rufus, a man Caesar put to death. Cicero wrote letters to Marcus Claudius Marcellus, a man Caesar had granted clemency only to be assassinated by his servant on his return from exile.  Cicero wrote letters to Publius Lentulus Spinther, a man Caesar put to death after the battle of Pharsalia.


Cicero wrote letters to Marcus Porcius Cato, a man who killed himself rather than be taken alive than beg for mercy at the hands of Caesar.  Cicero wrote letters to Caius Scribonius Curio, a man who led fifteen thousand men to their death in Africa at the behest of Caesar. Cicero wrote letters to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, a man betrayed by those who desired to gain Caesar’s favor.  Pompey was married to Julius Caesar’s only child, his daughter Julia.  She died due to complications from childbirth.  She feared that her father’s supporters killed her husband. 

Cicero wrote letters to his brother Quintus Tullius Cicero, a man Caesar’s avengers murdered along with his son.  Cicero wrote letters to Marcus Junius Brutus, a man Caesar scandalized his whole life by taking his mother as his mistress. Marcus Junius Brutus would later kill Caesar and die at the hands of Caesar’s avengers.

“You have enemies? Good. That means you've stood up for something, sometime in your life.”
Winston Churchill

That Caesar had enemies is not novel.  His success at disposing them is not entirely reprehensible.  But given the scope of such a disposal and compared by the lights of his contemporaries, even the most practiced relativist may have some difficulty coming to Caesar’s aid or justifying what it was he stood for.

Caesar and Cicero both agreed, “Friendship is the one thing about the utility of which everybody with one accord is agreed.[v]” Cicero did not believe that friendship should be “maintained with the most absolute fidelity, constancy, and integrity.[vi]”  Cicero wrote “Virtue (without which friendship is impossible) is first; but next to it, and to it alone, the greatest of all things is Friendship.[vii]

Cicero wrote letters to Caesar, not many but a few.  But Cicero did not serve Caesar in a way a lackey would.  Cicero advised his son to avoid such conduct.  Cicero described an incident where his protagonist Laelius, the father-in-law to Cicero’s adopted father Quintus Mucius Scaevola, tried a case against the associates of Tiberius Gracchus.  Blossius “pleaded for my pardon on the ground that his regard for Tiberius Gracchus had been so high that he looked upon his wishes as law.”

Laelius:  “Even if he had wished you to set fire to the Capitol?”

Blossius: “That is a thing, that he never would have wished.

Laelius: “Ah, but if he had wished it?”

Blossius: “I would have obeyed.”

“The wickedness of such a speech needs no comment.”  Julius Caesar surrounded himself with lackeys. 

A pupil and a lackey himself to Crassus, Caesar found corrupted men the most predictable and pliable.  He gained the most clients in paying their debts.  How did these debt slaves re-pay their master?  Most of the assassins – the Republican liberators supported his Caesarian cause with varying enthusiasm.  “They did in envy of great Caesar.[viii]

Cicero described the indulgence of a man’s faults compliance.  Echoing Terence, Cicero wrote, “Compliance gets us friends, plain speaking hate.[ix]”  Cicero avoided plain speaking when more artful and expedient language served similarly purposes.  But Cicero viewed correcting a friend’s fault a solemn duty in friendship: “compliance is really the cause of much more trouble, because by indulging his faults it lets a friend plunge into headlong ruin.” Having explored Cicero’s ideas of friendship and how he measured up to the ideas he espoused for his son, Anthony Trollope wrote: “Was Cicero sincere to his party, was he sincere to his friends, was he sincere to his family, was he sincere to his dependents? Did he offer to help and not help? Did he ever desert his ship, when he had engaged himself to serve?[x]

In what practical ways Cicero used friendship as a means of personal diplomacy in arguing for the Republic, a cause that Caesar openly detested. Cicero dedicated his life to the Old Republic.  Could persuasion convince Caesar the error of his ways much the same way Sulla’s friends convinced him to resign the Dictatorship.  In exploring the events from Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon in January 49 BC to the aftermath of Caesar’s, five years and eight months later, the interaction between Cicero and Caesar was spare. 

In the consular year of Gaius Claudius Marcellus Major and Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, when Caesar crossed the Rubicon, Cicero waited to return to Rome.  He completed his pro-consular command in Cilicia cleaning up the mess that his predecessor Appius Claudius Pulcher.[xi]  His virtuous conduct had been crowned with military victory over tribes allied to the Parthians.  The news of this victory buoyed the hopes of the Roman people after the disaster at Carrhae[xii]. The Senate planned to hold a triumph for him. “When the senators were voting him a triumph, he said he would more gladly follow in Caesar's triumphal procession.” The darkened clouds of civil war ended any thought of celebration.

Ambushed with the news of the Civil War, Cicero chose sides reluctantly and belatedly.  Cicero wanted matters settled “if matters could be settled; and privately he gave much advice to Caesar by letter, and much to Pompey in person by way of personal entreaty, trying to mollify and pacify each of them. But when things were past healing, and Caesar was advancing upon the city, and Pompey did not stay there, but abandoned the city in the company of many good men, Cicero did not take part in this flight, and was thought to be attaching himself to Caesar. And it is clear that his judgment drew him strongly in both directions and that he was in distress.[xiii]

From his letters, “he knew not which way he ought to turn, since Pompey had honorable and good grounds for going to war, while Caesar managed matters better and had more ability to save himself and his friends; he therefore knew from whom he should flee, but not to whom he should flee.[xiv]


Caesar’s cult of personality compelled him to adhere publicly to the gods of Clemency.  Nonetheless, Caesar ceased the charade of thoughtful reflection and his desire for peace. Caesar discontinued correspondence with Cicero and communicated by messenger. “Trebatius, one of the companions of Caesar, wrote [Cicero] a letter stating that Caesar thought he ought above all things to range himself on his side and share his hopes.[xv]” Caesar by Trebatius also stated, “but that if he declined to do this by reason of his age, he ought to go to Greece and take up a quiet life there out of the way of both.” If Caesar’s many wives were to be above suspicion, Caesar himself would not stoop to attach his name to his threats and make these threats by proxy by epistle.

“Cicero was amazed that Caesar himself did not write, and replied in a passion that he would do nothing unworthy of his political career.[xvi]”  Could Caesar make a similar boast?

Caesar interviewed Cicero in Formaie in March of 49 BC.[xvii] Cicero refused Caesar counsel and to accompany him at Rome.  Caesar spent less than a week in Rome.

Cicero maintained contacts within the Caesarian party.  He loathed Antony but he loved of Curio, Trebonius, Caelius and Dolabella.  Cicero sought to mentor these men in the same way Scaevola mentored him after Cicero’s father died and Laelius mentored Scaevola when Scaevola married Laelius’ daughter.

The thirty something Curio was a man on the move.  Debt relief brought the popular and silver spooned Curio to Caesar’s standards.  Curio’s attachment to Antony appeared at times unseemly.[xviii]   Curio used his influence to get Antony the office of tribune that precipitated the Civil War. Caesar commissioned Curio with a 3 legion amphibious force.   Curio was to invade Sicily and pursue Cato, guard the straits of Messina from Republican reinforcement and take the fight to Africa.

Caesar left the city in the hands of the future triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.  Lepidus held the elected office of praetor.  Leaving Antony behind, Caesar proceeded to dispatch Pompey’s seven Spanish Legions and Labienus in Cisalpine Gaul[xix].


In May of that year, Cicero’s favorite child and only daughter, Tullia gave her husband Dolabella a son.  In June of 49 B.C., Cicero joined Pompey’s camp after Caesar’s interview at Formaie, Italy. 

Upon Ceasar’s return to the eternal city in September, Lepidus orchestrated the Senatorial appointment of Dictator to Caesar.  Antony was Caesar’s Master of the Horse.  Anthony, though loved by the common soldiers, earned the contempt of everyone else because of his anger “at those who consulted him” and “his relations with other men’s wives.[xx]”  Caesar, unwilling to speak plainly with his nephew, overlooked his indiscretions and granted him a command in his Greek expedition against Pompey. 

Caesar’s friend and father-in-law, Calpurnius Piso would not be compliant to Caesar’s villainy.  He urged peace with Caesar’s erstwhile son-in-law, Pompey where Caesar held nascent affection.  The news of Curio’s annihilation in Africa colored Caesar’s victories in Spain and popular sentiment urged reconciliation in mourning the young man they loved.  But Caesar did not listen Piso, why would he listen Cicero?  Was not Cicero the man who continually refused to serve him and at present served his enemy Pompey in the enemy’s camp?  This was the lowest point in the friendship between Cicero and Caesar.

As Dictator, Caesar presided over the election of himself as Consul.  His friend Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus would be his colleague.  Trebonius served as Caesar’s Praetor. Caelius sat as Caesar’s praetor peregrinus “judge of suits involving foreigners.”  Dolabella, Cicero’s son-in-law, went with Caesar and Antony to fight Pompey and Cicero in Greece.

Presumably Cicero was a combatant at the Battle of Dyrrhachium in July of 48 BC. Caesar and Cicero came close to meeting at Pharsalus.  Cicero was ill[xxi] at the time of the battle and did not take part in the hostilities of August 9th in Pharsalia. 

The fortunes and disasters that met the Republic mirrored the misfortunes and calamities in Cicero’s life. Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus, the sole Consul presided Rome while Caesar faced Pompey in the East. Prices skyrocketed with the disruptions in trade, the uncertainty and labor shortages. Caesarianism depended on bribes to the mob. Isauricus and Trebonius fought with Caelius[xxii] over several debt cancellation schemes to win the urban poor.  Cicero’s great personal fortune collapsed forcing Terentia to sell her jewelry.  The correspondence between the two life long partners reflected this estrangement.

After Pharsalia, Caesar pardoned Marcus Junius Brutus upon his capture. Pompey took flight.  Cicero refused future commands in the Republican cause.  He petitioned to return to Rome through Dolabella who would later served as tribune in 47 B.C.[xxiii] On September 29, 48 BC, Ptolemy betrayed Pompey killing him under the flag of diplomacy and hospitality.

In 47 B.C., Caesar had Qunitus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius elected to the consulship.  A bitter political enemy of Cicero, Publius Vatinius sold his service to Caesar during his first Consular year in 59 B.C.  Antony mismanaged of Rome.  Romans got up at dawn and worked. Antony did not endear himself to the people with moral living. Cicero says “he was hated by them. They loathed his ill-timed drunkenness, his heavy expenditures, his debauches with women, his spending the days in sleep or in wandering about with crazed and aching head, the nights in revelry or at shows, or in attendance at the nuptial feasts of mimes and jesters.”  Further Antony moved into Pompey’s house without paying a fair market price.  He surrounded himself with the lowest elements of society such as Sergius the mime and Cytheris, the actress.  Cytheris traveled in a litter followed by “as many attendants as that of his mother.”  The “people were vexed at the sight of golden beakers borne about on his excursions from the city as in sacred processions, at the pitching of tents when he travelled, at the laying out of costly repasts near groves and rivers, at chariots drawn by lions, and at the use of honest men and women's houses as quarters for harlots and psaltery-players.”

Dolabella, the tribune, in order to please the mob introduced legislation to abolish debts.  Antony’s advisors Asinius and Trebellius disagreed with Dolabella’s scheme.  The intrigue between Dolabella and Antony’s wife complicated the matter. The discord between the two Caesarians mimicked the violence between Isauricas and Caelius of the following year.  “Antony, after the senate had voted that arms must be employed against Dolabella, came up against him, joined battle, slew some of his men, and lost some of his own. [xxiv]

Caesar was all over the place.  He did not stay in one place longer than week.  There was one exception – Egypt.   It is hard to persuade a man always on the run.  Ask the Cleopatra.  The birth of his child by the twenty-two African Queen could not detain him.  

Cicero asked for Caesar’s pardon upon his return from Egypt in the August and September of 47 B.C[xxv].  He had again been appointed Dictator and after he been elected Consul with his puppet Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.  Caesar resigned the Dictatorship. 

Cicero did not have the foresight to see what was going on. And when he was able to see, it was too late.  Even in the spare moments Caesar was in Rome, Cicero did not really lobby Ceasar. He was distracted.  Cicero underwent much hardship in the last six years of his life including domestic concerns.  Among the numerous friends killed on both sides of the fratricidal conflict, Cicero counted his marriage among his many great losses.  Terentia, his wife and mother of his adult children, ran up a lot of debts before departing. Cicero also divorced his wife Terentia for neglect. His daughter, Tullia and Dolabella divorced that year as well.

Cicero meanwhile took up the legal defense of Quintus Ligarius “under prosecution because he had been one of the enemies of Caesar.[xxvi]”  The Jury acquitted Quintus Ligarius.   

Cicero remarried.  His ex-wife asserted that Cicero lusted after her youthful beauty.  His new wife, Publia "was very wealthy, and Cicero had been left her trustee and had charge of her property. So since he owed many tens of thousands he was persuaded by his friends and relatives to marry the girl, old as he was, and to get rid of his creditors by using her money." Cicero withdrew from Rome.  He attended to his friends and instead pursued literary pursuits.

When Cicero entered Rome, it was “only to pay court to Caesar.”  In the Senate, the former consuls spoke first.  As many of the former consuls opposed Caesar, few of the former Consuls lived to Caesar’s fourth Consulship.  Cicero therefore “was foremost among those who advocated Caesar's honours and were eager to be ever saying something new about him and his measures.” This the collateral Caesar demanded in restoring the statues of Pompey. Caesar ordered ordered them to be “set up again after they had been thrown down and taken away . . .  What Cicero said was that by this act of generosity Caesar did indeed set up the statues of Pompey, but firmly planted his own also.[xxvii]

Cicero’s personal diplomacy paid off. Caesar took the side of Cicero’s former son-in-law in the Dolabella-Antony feud.  Antony did not see Caesar for two years.

Upon his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs – a victory over the Gauls, Alexandria, Pontus and Africa.

Caesar began his fourth consulship without a colleague.  In February of 45 B.C., Julius Caesar tendered a letter of condolence to Cicero. His daughter, Tullia married Lentulus after her divocre to Dolabella. She died in giving birth to Dolabella’s second son.  Publia offended her husband Cicero.  Publia hoped that Tullia’s death would mean that Cicero would pay more attention to her.  Her sentiment however ill expressed proved to be grounds for divorce which Cicero gave her.[xxviii]

Caesar returned from Spain.  He defeated the sons of Pompey at the battle of Munda in March 17th.  The mob of Rome, which suckled at Caesar’s breasts, found the celebration of his triumph macabre.[xxix] In April, “He triumphed nominally over the Gauls, the Egyptians, the Asiatics of Pontus, over the Africans, and the Spaniards; but his triumph was, in truth, over the Republic. . . the people of Rome refused to show any pleasure, and that even his own soldiers had enough in them of the Roman spirit to feel resentment at his assumption of the attributes of a king.”

Cicero “applauds the people who would not clap their hands, even in approval of the Goddess of Victory, because she had shown herself in such bad company. [xxx]

From April 45 B.C. to March 15, 45 B.C., Caesar played Antony against Dolabella.  Without friends, he generally favored the more slavish Antony taking him as his colleague in the year of his death 44 B.C. 

In this year, Caesar began his most ambitious legislative agenda.  Like Tarquin the Proud, Caesar proposed measures that would benefit the city, but the unreality of Caesar’s life finally caught up with him.  Caesar won many triumphs.  The son upon whom Fortune favored had been deaf to the whispering of the slave in Caesar’s ear, “Remember you are mortal,” until the year he sat astride the entire world as a king in all but name.

Caesar sought to legitimize his infamy.  He needed to appear popular and loved.  The consent of the people defended him against the infamy that accompanies tyrants. He dispensed with his bodyguard and walked among the people.  His supporters sought to pay him more honors and went to great lengths to abase themselves before an untitled king by the name of Caesar.  His opponents abased themselves to inspire hate. Caesar lavished many gifts on the people.  The grant of stolen goods gave the people little solace or comfort.

Cicero wrote two letters recommending young men to positions of public trust.  Cicero comically helped fill a vacancy in the Consulship. Cicero had little influence on Caesar preferring to stay in his country estates and attend to his retirement.  Caesar did not want a colleague but a minister who would do his thinking for him and someone to blame when things went awry.  Caesar was not wont for servants and slaves.  While he could escape, Cicero did.  He did not re-enter the forum until the tyrant’s blood ran cold.

Out west, there is a saying you lead a horse to water, but choking it won’t make it drink any water.  Cicero could not convince Caesar to give up the tyranny he so ardently coveted.  Perhaps Cicero may have convinced Caesar if Cicero had only tried harder. To which, Cicero’s book on friendship concluded “friendship may be thus defined: a complete accord on all subjects human and divine, joined with mutual good will and affection.” It may be worth conceding that the Republic and the course of Western civilization may have been changed forever if Cicero’s friendship with Caesar was more sincere.  To which, one cannot help but respond maybe Cicero did not find Caesar all that charming.




END NOTES



[i]  Mohandas Gandhi
[ii] Cicero, Marcus Tullius.  De Officiis. Translated by Walter Miller. 
Loeb edition. 
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 
1913. E-book.
[iii] Pharnaces came to the aid of Pompey defeated a Caesarian lieutenant Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus at the Battle of Nicopolis. One year later, Caesar returned to avenge not only Nicopolis.  He returned to avenge the slaughtered Roman citizens and prisoners of war left behind in the territory Pharnaces seized. In coining the term "Veni, Vidi, Vici," Caesar hoped to link himself to the victory gained over Mithridates 44 years earlier following the Asiatic Vespers.  Julius Caesar, The Alexandrian Wars.  The Internet Classics Archive, 1994-2000. E-book.
[iv] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Julius Caesar. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[v] Cicero, Marcus Tullius.  On Friendship. 23. Translated by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh. P. F. Collier, 1909. E-book.
[vi] Cicero, ibid. 7.
[vii] Cicero, Marcus Tullius.  On Friendship. 27. Translated by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh. P. F. Collier, 1909. E-book.
[viii] Shakespeare, William. Julius Caesar. Scholastic Book Series, 1874. P 139.
[ix] Cicero, Marcus Tullius.  On Friendship. 24. Translated by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh. P. F. Collier, 1909. E-book.
[x] Trollope, Anthony.  Life of Cicero, Volume 2The Project Gutenberg EBook. 2009. E-book.
[xi] Cicero maintained a cozy relationship with the haughty aristocrat, but Pulcher’s governorship with its confirmed bribery, plunder and corruption. Trollope, Anthony.  Life of Cicero, Volume 2The Project Gutenberg EBook. 2009. E-book.
[xii] Crassus, Pompey and Caesar’s third man in the triumvirate attempted to ape Caesar’s celebrity by starting a war with Parthia.  Crassus led 35,000 Roman legionnaires to their death and slavery at Carrhae.

Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Crassus. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xiii] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Antony. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xiv] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Cicero. 37. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xv] Plutarch, ibid.
[xvi] Plutarch, ibid.
[xvii] Pompey escaped to Greece with 2 legions in tact.  Caesar pursued Pompey with 6 legions outnumbering Pompey 3 to 1.  Pompey still managed to control the Roman fleet.  His flight from Brundisium would be one of the rare lights in the Republican cause.
[xviii] Historians have linked a homosexual relationship between Curio and Antony in their youth.
[xix] Caesar took the defection of Titus Labienus hard.  Labienus had been an early supporter of Caesar.  Caesar successfully prosecuted Gaius Rabirius, the man who murdered Labienus’ uncle in the crisis created by Tribune Saturninus of 100 BC.

Labienus served as one of Caesar’s key leaders in Gaul.  Labienus proved his valor and supreme generalship consistently in the ten year campaign in Gaul.

Caesar left Labienus in charge of Cisalpine Gaul while he resolved affairs in Rome.
[xx] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Antony. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xxi] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Cicero. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xxii] Caelius took up with Milo who rebelled against Caesar.  Caesar had both men executed that year.
[xxiii] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Antony. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xxiv] Plutarch, ibid.
[xxv] Trollope, Anthony.  Life of Cicero, Volume 2The Project Gutenberg EBook. 2009. E-book.
[xxvi] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Cicero. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xxvii] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Caesar. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xxviii] Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Cicero. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xxix] “This was the last war that Caesar waged; and the •triumph that was celebrated for it vexed the Romans as nothing else had done. 8 For it commemorated no victory over foreign commanders or barbarian kings, but the utter annihilation of the sons and the family of the mightiest of the Romans, who had fallen upon misfortune; 9 and it was not meet for Caesar to celebrate a triumph for the calamities of his country, priding himself upon actions which had no defence before gods or men.”

Plutarchus, Lucius Mestrius.  The Life of Caesar. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.  Loeb Classical Library edition The Text on Lacus Curtius The University of Chicago E-book.
[xxx] Trollope, Anthony.  Life of Cicero, Volume 2The Project Gutenberg EBook. 2009. E-book.
















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