The Verrine Orations by Marcus Tullius Cicero

End of Empire

The Roman Empire fell in 42 BC at the battle of Philippi where Mark Antony defeated decisively the forces of Old Republic led by Marcus Brutus - the de facto stepson and rumored cuckolded son of Julius Caesar.

The unraveling of the social fabric created in Republican government took three hundred and fifty five years.  Julius Caesar, Marius and the Gracchi dreamed not to emulate Cincinatus or Camillus but Alexander.  In establishing monarchy with the trappings of liberty, Julius Caesar continued the monarchies of the Diadochi.

There was one important consequence the peace among the Greeks.  That united Greek hegemony against Rome envisioned by Perseus of Macedon found fruit in Caesar who established a Greek hegemony within Rome.  Greeks and Greeklings found themselves vying for the monarchy in Rome.

The problem with monarchies as the Sassanid empire demonstrates is that they aren't very stable.  The year of the four emperors and the crisis of the Third Century demonstrate this.

The empire that Diocletian inherited may have been a sinking ship due to sociological factors rather than political ones.  That said, his decision to divide the empire into a tetrarchy served as a death warrant for city born on the banks of the Tiber ford.

Sulla or Caesar?

A question on the facebook page of Ancient Rome Refocused from a Canadian fan posits:
would it be better to have a Sulla who respected the Senate but was extreme in his ruthlessness time travel to the the White House, or a Julius Caesar who saw democracy as an obstacle but who was compassionate to his enemies?


 I don't think Caesar was all that compassionate to his enemies. He did not participate in the proscriptions that his nephew and Sulla whole heartedly bathed themselves in. Caesar fought six campaigns for absolute power and when he held it, according to Plutarch he wasn't well liked. I estimate that he killed over 115,000 Romans or 1/3 the Roman population according to Toynbee's figure.

The solution to our spiritual crisis is not a political one though it has political consequences. If all of the world's problems could be solved by rounding up the problem population and disposing of them, then we should stop speaking English and speak German, Russian or Chinese. 

We have to practice our religion. Cato was a stoic. Cicero was a peripatetic. I am a Christian. Numa Popilius was a pagan. If we obey the will of God, seek the harder right over the easier wrong, we will be just fine and like Cicero, our virtue will immortalize us. If we fail, we will be overrun by the babarians who will regard us much the same way Tamerlane regarded the Baghdadi.


What do you think?  Post your comment and join the discussion.  Thank you!

Rome and Fascism

A fan of the Ancient Rome Refocused page asserted that the Romans would be more comfortable in a fascist state than in our own democracy - never mind that the founders based our own U.S. Constitution on the Roman Republic.  I responded thus:


If these census figures are to be believed, the Romans had representation indirectly through their client-patron relationships in the Senate. They could also participate in the 3 assemblies.

Though the Emperors enjoyed a type of totalitarianism. They all thought such unchecked power to be despicable. That is why Imperial historians like Suetonius were critical of men like Caligula and Nero. Again it is important to appreciate the genius of the Lycurgian constitution explained by Polybius:

How the Roman Republic fell is the same is why our constitutions are failing us, because more evil men are overwhelming the virtuous men. The solution is to create more virtuous men - like Cato the Younger, Cicero, and Cincinnatus. The creation of more virtuous men can only be done by example. Cato the Younger, Cicero, and Cincinnatus knew that.

In a lot of ways Rome's problems as our own problems are spiritual.


What do you think?  Post your comments here and join the discussion.  Thank you!

Pater Familia

What were the basic constitutional and social constructs of the early Roman Republic?

The family, religion, the government, class and the army formed the basic building blocks of the early Roman Republic.

The family forms the basis of any stable society.  Rome was no different.  The Roman father stood at the head of the family.   No one in his family could do anything without his consent.  It did not matter if the adult children reached adulthood.  His word was law as long as he lived.  Neglected by most historians was the Roman matron.  Roman matrons, Aurelia Caesar, Caecilia Metella and Sempronia reaffirmed the ancient adage that the hand that rocks the cradle rules the world.   The good and dutiful son brought honor and renown to his father and his family.  The eldest daughter tended the hearth.  She kept the home fire warm, a virgin until her thirtieth birthday, she like her mother abided and advocated Roman morals.   In addition to nuclear family obligations, the Roman had familial obligations to his clan and his tribe.  This was the patron client relationship that grew and grew.

Though not a clerical people, religion played an enormous role in Roman society harmonizing society, interpreting what was good and what was bad and discerning the will of God.  Hierarchy and complexity manifested themselves in the occupancy of the various offices:  Pontifex Maximus, Priests of Jupiter and the college of augurs.

The Roman replaced the monarchy with Lycurgus’ balanced constitution of rule shared by the Magistracies (limited and distributed monarchy), the Senate (oligarchy) and the Assemblies (democracy).  Various elected magistrates, Censors, Consuls, Tribunes, Praetor, Aediles and Quaestors, held term limited power over various jurisdictions.  The Senate consisted of 300 former magistrates and patricians provided the members met minimum property restrictions.  The people participated in the assemblies.

In the early Republic, Romans saw themselves as either patrician or plebian.  A patrician was one of the original one hundred wealthy men designated by the first king Romulus.  One could become ennobled when his father held the office of praetor or consul.  Later, when the Republic became more prosperous, an equestrian class or middle class would come to play a more important role in Roman society.

The last institution was the Army.  Though it was a militia force only levied for a season within the Italian peninsula, the Army was always on campaign. 

The Army, Class, the Government, Religion and Family formed the constituent parts of Roman society.

The Last Roman

What were the causes of the collapse of the Roman Republic and how were these faults corrected in the early Empire?

Freedom is never more than one generation away from extinction. We didn’t pass it on to our children in the bloodstream. It must be fought for, protected, and handed on for them to do the same, or one day we will spend our sunset years telling our children and our children's children what it was once like in the United States where men were free.

- Ronald Reagan

Address to the annual meeting of the Phoenix Chamber of Commerce

30 March 1961

We attribute Edmund Burke for observing "All that is necessary for the triumph of evil is that good men do nothing."   When the Republic dies, it dies because the enemies of liberty overwhelmed the defenders of liberty.  It was true in Caesar's day as it was in Tsar Nicholas' day, Tadeusz Kościuszko's day or the days of the Weimar Republic.

Aristotle wrote on Ethics of three men.  One man has no idea what ethics are and if he acts in an ethical way it is by chance or threat of violence.  The next man knows what ethics are and but acts in unethical way by inclination.  The only thing deterring him is an act of violence.  The last man is the man who knows what it means to be ethical and follows an ethic lifestyle by choice.  These are the philosopher kings.  This is what the Roman people were for 727 years until the end of the republic.

Romans stood vigil against the enemies of liberty thwarting the designs of men like Tarquin the Proud and Appius Claudius.  Rome resisted these men simply put because the defenders of liberty had more strength in numbers and in force of character than the enemies of liberty.

Those enemies of Roman liberty were Gaius Julius Caesar, Octavian Caesar, Gaius Marius, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Mark Antony, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Caitline,  Pompey, Saturninius, Suplicius, and the legion of sycophants, fools, traitors and changelings that surrendered their liberty to be lackeys of these dangerous blood thirsty men, men like Annius, Asiaticus, Flaccus, Fimbria and to a degree Sertorius.

The Roman Republic had one last hope – Cicero, one of the greatest Romans to live since Camillus.  Cicero, this novus homo who defended Sextus Roscius, convicted Gaius Verres in all but name, exposed and crushed the Caitline conspiracy, guided the ship of state through the tumult of the triumvirate, waged a Fabian strategy against the illegal dictatorship of Gaius Julius Caesar and blunted the mad tyranny of Mark Antony. Consider this episode recounted by Anthony Trollope in The Life of Cicero:

He gives his brother an account of the doings in the Senate, which is interesting as showing us how that august assembly conducted itself. While Pompey was speaking with much dignity, Clodius and his supporters in vain struggled with shouts and cries to put him down. At noon Pompey sat down, and Clodius got possession of the rostra, and in the middle of a violent tumult remained on his feet for two hours. Then, on Pompey's side, the "optimates" sang indecent songs --"versus obscenissimi"--in reference to Clodius and his sister Clodia. Clodius, rising in his anger, demanded, "Who had brought the famine?" "Pompey," shouted the Clodians. "Who wanted to go to Egypt?" demanded Clodius. "Pompey," again shouted his followers. After that, at three o'clock, at a given signal, they began to spit upon their opponents. Then there was a fight, in which each party tried to drive the others out. The "optimates" were getting the best of it, when Cicero thought it as well to run off lest he should be hurt in the tumult.

Rome fell from within and the causes of the decline come from one source - moral degeneration.

When died a patriot's death at the hands of his executioners in 43 BC, so did dreams of Roman liberty - NEVER TO BE RECOVERED.

The Roman Legacy

Lector, si monumentum requiris circumspice.

In language, architecture, government, engineering, military tactics and organization, and religion, the Romans, more than any other peoples save the Jews, shaped Western Civilization into what it is today.  The prophesy of the Sibyl still holds for the people of blood and iron, that the Romans were made to rule, an unbroken Universal Empire.

The Romans demonstrated their engineering and architectural prowess over centuries from the far reaches of Scotland to the banks of the Euphrates River. The ruins left over two thousand years ago still function as buildings and roads.   The Etruscans and Greek influenced the Romans who used of the arch, the dome, and the vault from bricks, and ceramic.   The Romans invented concrete to build walls, aqueducts, temples, law courts, market places, and roads.   Roads and aqueducts projected the power of the Roman legions throughout the empire.  It also allowed for the relatively easy transmittal of goods, services, and ideas.  We have adopted and built on the Roman Way nearly everywhere. Rotunda at the University of Virginia, the United States Capitol, the Washington Square arch in New York City, and Five Star Highway Systems implemented by President Eisenhower in the 1950s.

The Catholic Church preserved much of the Roman cultural tradition.  Christianity co-opted Roman paganism: the Messianic belief in Caesar’s divinity, Mithraism’s belief in divine redemption of mankind, and the celebration of Christmas at the time of the Saturnalia - the winter solstice.

Roman political ideas influenced Christian religion.  The Roman Catholic Church took an Imperial view of the office where the Eastern Orthodox took a more Republican view.  Roman Catholics recognize the Pope as the infallible wielding supreme authority over all churches.  For example, the Pope can contradict or usurp the power of a lower ranking church leader. The Eastern Orthodox also have various bishops with one being the highest bishop called the first among equals, but the Eastern Orthodox do not believe the highest ranking bishop, or archbishop, to be infallible, nor do they grant him with supreme authority over all churches.

The Romans left behind their government.  The Germanic tribes that succeed them adopted the Imperial model.  The United States adopted republicanism.  Much of the military still finds its tactics and organization in Roman methods.  The church preserved Latin.  Until the mid 20th century was that Roman Catholic services were conducted in Latin.  The Roman language contributed to languages of Spanish, French, Italian,  Portuguese, Romanian and English.

Roman morality leaves us a legacy of what a man and a society could be.   The ideal state, where every citizen works with a purpose subordinated to a larger good, not because they have to, but because they wish to, is what it is all about.   Cincinnatus' legendary sacrifice and valor are just one of the examples of this.  It was not remarkable that the Roman empire fell, but it was remarkable that it stood for so long. Livy, Tacitus, Sallust, Plutarch and Polybius left behind the aspirations to such ideals and the disappointment that comes with their loss.  Historian Ammianus Marcellinus provides an account of how chaotic Roman rule was during the Fourth Century. Rulers applied more and more pressure on the people in response to their failure to effectively manage the bloated bureaucracy that Rome had become.   Of specific importance is his detailed telling of the cruel practices of those who had absolute power, mainly Constantius. His oppression of the poor and the effects of their suffering are used as a vivid counter balance to the aristocrats who flourished because of their wealth.

In conclusion, language, architecture, government, engineering, military tactics and organization, and religion, we have adopted the Roman Way.

Timeline of the Life of Lucius Cornelius Sulla

112	Jugurthine War started - the legions under Quintus Caecilius Metellus had been unsuccessful	26
107	Nominated Quaestor to Gaius Marius	31
	Gaius Marius elected Consul that year
	Marius commanded the Army to prosecute the war against Jugurtha in Numidia in Northern Africa
106	Sulla captured the Numidian king be persuading King Bocchus I of Mauretania
	The publicity boosts Sulla's career
	The publicity annoys Marius
	King Bocchus donated a gilded equestrian statue of Sulla in the Forum
104	Cimbri and Teutones War begins	34
	Marius is the supreme commander
	Sulla is the military tribune during the first half of the campaign
	Sulla is transferred to the army of Marius' colleague to serve as his legatus and is credited as being the main advisor to Quintus Lutatius Catulus.  Catulus was regarded as a hopeless general and incapable of cooperating with Marius
104	Marius is elected Consul for the second time.	34
103	Marius is elected Consul for the third time.	35
102	Marius is elected Consul for the fourth time	36
101	Marius is elected Consul for the fifth time.	37
101	At the Battle of Vercellae, Marius defeats the Cimbri and the Teutones.	37
100	Marius is elected Consul for the sixth time.	38
101	Both Marius and Catulus celebrated triumphs.	37
97	Sulla elected Praetor Urbanus	41
96	The Senate and People of Rome appoint Sulla governor of the province of Cilicia.	42
	Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador Orobazus by sitting in between the ambassador of Pontus and Parthia
	The King of Parthia executed Orobazus for being outmanoeuvered by Sulla.
	A Chaldean seer told him that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune.
	He repulsed Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia
95	Returned from Cilicia to oppose Marius in the Optimate party	43
91	Tribune Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger intended to grant Roman citizenship to the Socii - Rome's Italian allies.	47
91	Assassins murder tribune Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger	47
	War breaks out with the Italian Allies
	The Optimates, fearing the ascendancy of Marius determine that he should not have overall command of the Army.
	Sulla demonstrated military brilliance as a general outshining Marius and Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (the father of Pompey)
89	Sulla captured Aeclanum, the chief town of the Hirpini by setting the wooden breastwork on fire	49
	At the battle of Nola, Sulla rescues a legion.  The rescued legion award the highest military honor to Sulla - the Corona Graminea - the Grass Crown
88	The Senate and People of Rome elect Sulla as consul	50
	Sulla marries his daughter, Cornelia Sulla to his son of his colleague Quintus Pompeius Rufus also named Quintus Pompeius Rufus and uncle to Aulus Rufus
88	The Asiatic Vespers - the Greeks slaughter 80,000 Greeks.
	War breaks out in Asia and Greece.
	300,000 Pontic hoplites surround the garrison of Bruttius Sura
	Sulla and Quintus Pompeius Rufus block the legislation of tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus that would ensure the rapid organization of the Italian Allies within Roman citizenship
	Sulpicius finding an ally in Marius urged his supporters to riot
	Sulla returned from Nola to meet Pompieus Rufus, but Sulpicious followers interrupted the meeting.
	Sulpicius' followers killed the son of Pompeius Rufus and son-in-law to Sulla
	Sulla takes refuge at the house of Marius
	Marius forces Sulla to accept Marius' pro-Italian legislation
	Marius promises to wipe out all of Sulpicius' debts
	Sulpicus used the Assemblies to transfer the Eastern command to Marius
	Sulpicius's supporters ejected the Senators from the Senate so as not to have a Quorum
	Some of the nobles attempt to resist Sulpicius' mob violence
	Sulpicius' gladiators defy the Senators
	Marius envoys announce the change of command.
	Sulla's legionnaires stone the envoys.
	Sulla with 6 of his most loyal legions return to Rome
87	Most of his commanders with the exception of Sulla's kinsman by marriage Lucullus enter the city limits
	Armed gladiators are no match against Roman soldiers
	Marius offers freedom to any slave who will fight for him.
	Three slaves join Marius's cause
	Marius and his followers flee the city
	Sulla returned the Rome.
	Sulla declared Marius and his allies enemies of the state.
	Sulla addressed the Senate in harsh tones justifying his actions
	Sulla reorganized the government
	Sulla then departs for Brundisium
	Sulpicius was betrayed and killed by one of his slaves whom Sulla freed and executed.
	Marius flees to Africa.
	Sulla departs from Italy.
	Sulla lands in Epirus (western Greece)
	Marius returns and controls the city.
	Sulla marches into Attica through Boeotia
	Sulla regains the allegiance of many of the cities in particular Thebes
87	Sulla Lands in Dyrrachium, Greece	51
	Sulla's objective is Athens
	the puppet tyrant Aristion ruled Athens
	Sulla's chief of Staff Lucullus scouted the way
	Lucullus relieved the current commander Bruttius Sura
	Sulla met with the Ambaassadors of all the major cities in Greece except Athens.
	Sulla impressed on them Rome's determination to drive Mithridates out of Greece and Asia
	Sulla marches on Athens
	Sulla lays seige works around Athens and the port city of Piraeus
	Sulla dispatches Lucullus to face Archelaus
	Sulla cut down the scared groves of Greece.  He cut down everything within 100 miles of Athens
	He borrowed money from the temples and Sibyls alike
	Many refugees from Rome find their way to Sulla's camp
	An embassy from Athens treats with Sulla: "I was sent to Athens, not to take lessons, but to reduce rebels to obedience."
	Spies informed him that Aristion neglected the Hepachalcum.
	Sappers brought down 900 feet of wall between the Sacred and Piraeic gates on the southwest of the city
	A midnight sack of Athens began
	Blood flowed in the streets
	Sulla's greek friends Midias and Calliphon and the pleas of Roman senators
	Sulla concentrates his forces against Archelaus in Piraeus.
	Archelaus escapes and links up with Taxiles
	Burns the port city to the ground
86	Sulla intercepts the Pontic Army at a hill called Philoboetus at Mount Parnassus overlooking the Elatean plain	52
	Marius dies the day after his election
	The Pontic Army under Taxiles number 120,000
	Archeluas wanted a war of attrition
	Taxlies had orders to attack at once.
	Sulla ordered his men to dig in and occupy the ruined city of Parapotamii, which was impregnable and commanded the fords on the road to Chaeronea
	Sulla abandoned the fords and moved behin the entrenched palisade
	The Pontic chariots fail to break split the Roman center behind the palisade
	The Ponic Phalanxes also fail
	Archelaus' right wing threatened Sulla's left wing
	Sulla is able to stablize is flank
	Only 10,000 of the Army survive
	Battle of Chaeronea
	Battle of Orchomenus
85	Liberation of Macedonia, Asia and Cilicia provinces from Pontic occupation	53
84	Reorganization of Asia province	54
83	Returns to Italy and undertakes civil war against the factional Marian government	55
83	War with the followers of Caius Marius the younger and Cinna	55
82	Victory at the Battle of the Colline Gate	56
82	Appointed "dictator legibus faciendis et rei publicae constituendae causa"	56
81	Resigns the dictatorship before the end of the year	57
80	Holds the consulship (for the second time) with Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius as colleague	58
79	Retires from political life, refusing the post consulatum provincial command of Gallia Cisalpina he was allotted as consul, but retaining the curatio for the reconstruction of the temples on the Capitoline Hill	59
78	Dies, perhaps of an intestinal ulcer. Funeral held in Rome	60